Properties of Cement Paste Containing Sustainable Non-Conforming Metakaolin for Minimising Environmental Impact

Nurul Fazliyani Amran; Shahrul Azwan Shakrani; Shamilah Anudai @ Anuar

doi:10.56532/mjsat.v6i3.662

Authors

Nurul Fazliyani Amran Faculty of Civil Engineering & Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Arau, Malaysia
Shahrul Azwan Shakrani Faculty of Civil Engineering & Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Arau, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0665-6735
Shamilah Anudai @ Anuar Faculty of Civil Engineering & Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Arau, Malaysia

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.56532/mjsat.v6i3.662

Keywords:

ASTM C618, Cement Paste, Cementitious Material, Low Impact Environment, Metakaolin

Abstract

In the building and construction industry, the use of ordinary Portland cement is often associated with a high carbon footprint, significantly contributing to climate change. Consequently, extensive research has explored the benefit of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) to reduce CO₂ emissions. One such material is metakaolin, which is widely available and has gained popularity. However, not all metakaolin properties meet the requirements set by standard specifications for SCMs. This study explores the use of non-conforming metakaolin as a partial replacement in cement paste to minimise environmental impact. Cement paste samples incorporating 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% metakaolin were prepared using a 0.6 water-to-cement ratio and tested for properties such as compressive strength, water absorption, ultrasonic pulse velocity, and density at curing periods of 7, 14, and 28 days. Results showed that water absorption and pulse velocity increased with higher metakaolin content, while density and compressive strength improved up to a 10% replacement level before declining. The highest compressive strength of 66.34 MPa was achieved at a 10% replacement level after curing at 28 days. These findings suggest that non-conforming metakaolin has the potential to be used as a partial replacement for ordinary Portland cement, offering a viable alternative with a lower environmental impact and reduced carbon footprint.

References

E. Khalil and M. AbouZeid, “A global assessment tool for cement plants improvement measures for the reduction of CO₂ emissions,” Results Eng., vol. 26, pp. 104767, 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2025.104767.

J. A. Castillo, B. Wilhelmsson, M. Broström, and M. Eriksson, “Phase evolution of cement raw meal in a high-CO₂ atmosphere,” Cem. Concr. Res., vol. 193, pp. 107874, 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2025.107874.

M. Kazemian and B. Shafei, “Carbon sequestration and storage in concrete: A state-of-the-art review of compositions, methods, and developments,” J. CO₂ Util., vol. 70, pp. 102443, 2023, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcou.2023.102443.

I. G. Amadi and J. Mahachi, “Towards sustainable concrete: Current trends and future projections of supplementary cementitious materials in South Africa,” Constr. Mater., vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 70, 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/constrmater5030070.

H. Bielen, B. Moins, A. Audenaert, and B. Craeye, “Data-driven evaluation of supplementary cementitious materials for cement-based repair mortars: A statistical literature review,” Cleaner Materials, vol. 21, pp. 100430, 2026, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clema.2026.100430.

J. A. Becerra-Duitama and D. Rojas-Avellaneda, “Pozzolans: A review,” Eng. Appl. Sci. Res., vol. 49, no. 4, pp. 495–504, 2022, doi: https://doi.org/10.14456/easr.2022.49.

Z. Zhang, D. Zhang, J. Zhou, D. Zhang, and K. H. Tan, “A critical review on high temperature performance of sustainable cementitious materials,” npj Mater. Sustain., vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 39, 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s44296-025-00081-9.

S. A. Shakrani, A. Ayob, M. A. Ab Rahim, and S. Alias, “Utilization of thermally activated water-washed kaolin particles towards mineral resources conservation,” Int. J. Conserv. Sci., vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 1077–1090, 2021.

S. A. Shakrani, A. Ayob, M. A. Ab Rahim, and S. Alias, “Effect of calcination processes on the crystallite size, grain size and particle size of water-washed kaolin particles,” IOP Conf. Ser.: Earth Environ. Sci., vol. 1303, no. 1, pp. 012006, 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1303/1/012006.

ASTM C618-25, Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use in Concrete. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International, 2025.

MS EN 197-1:2011, Cement – Part 1: Composition, Specifications and Conformity Criteria for Common Cements. Cyberjaya, Malaysia: Malaysia Standards, 2011.

MS EN 1008:2010, Mixing Water for Concrete. Cyberjaya, Malaysia: Malaysia Standards, 2010.

ASTM C642-21, Standard Test Method for Density, Absorption, and Voids in Hardened Concrete. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International, 2022.

ASTM C109/C109M-24, Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using 2-in. or [50-mm] Cube Specimens). West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International, 2025.

ASTM C597-22, Standard Test Method for Pulse Velocity through Concrete. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International, 2023.

R. Siddique and J. Klaus, “Influence of metakaolin on the properties of mortar and concrete: A review,” Appl. Clay Sci., vol. 43, no. 3–4, pp. 392–400, 2009, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2008.11.007.

J. M. Khatib and R. M. Clay, “Absorption characteristics of metakaolin concrete,” Cem. Concr. Res., vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 19–29, 2004, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/s0008-8846(03)00188-1.

H. El-Diadamony, A. A. Amer, T. M. Sokkary, and S. El-Hoseny, “Hydration and characteristics of metakaolin pozzolanic cement pastes,” HBRC J., vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 150–158, 2018, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hbrcj.2015.05.005.

D. V. Do, L. N. Ngoc, W. Saengsoy, S. Tangtermsirikul, and L. N. Trong, “Effects of LOI content in fly ash on shrinkage and chloride penetration resistance of mortars,” RILEM Annual Week, pp. 488–495, Springer, Cham, 2026, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-032-27919-4_57.

M. J. Geu, Y. Zhuge, X. Ma, and T. M. Pham, “Optimising calcination temperature for high reactivity metakaolin: Influence on amorphous content, mineralogy and microstructure,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 489, pp. 142431, 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2025.142431.

BS EN 12390-3:2019, Testing Hardened Concrete – Compressive Strength of Test Specimens. London, U.K.: British Standards Institution, 2019.

K. Weise, N. Ukrainczyk, and E. Koenders, “Pozzolanic reactions of metakaolin with calcium hydroxide: Review on hydrate phase formations and effect of alkali hydroxides, carbonates and sulfates,” Mater. Des., vol. 231, pp. 112062, 2023, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2023.112062.

M. A. Chandak and P. Y. Pawade, “Compressive strength and ultrasonic pulse velocity of concrete with metakaolin,” Civil Eng. Archit., vol. 8, no. 6, pp. 1277–1282, 2020, doi: https://doi.org/10.13189/cea.2020.080611